Atomic Bomb Essay -- essays research papers

On the morning of August 6, 1945, the first Atomic Bomb in history was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Soon after, on August 14, 1945, the Japanese abruptly surrendered, abandoning their ancient impost regarding honor in war. The fact that only two bombs were able to bring an entire country to its knees is a true testament to the awesome power they held. on that point is nonhing in modern warfare that can compete with the devastating effects of nuclear instruments.At the beginning of World War II, the Japanese were a major(ip) terror to the Asian World. On December 7, 1941, when they decided to attack Pearl Harbor (a US naval base in Hawaii), it was evident that their intentions were not limited to Asia. The United States entered World War II as a result of this attack. The war continued for six long years, and involved most of the major World Powers. During this time, there were many battles between the United States and Japan, including one of the bloodiest battles of World War II, which took place at Okinawa. If allowed to expand, Japan posed a serious threat to the allies.During the war, one of the most brilliant scientists in history, Albert Einstein, hypothesized that if the true power of the atom were released in a weapon, the results would be devastating. This was soon confirmed by a bad portion of the scientific community. Whoever possessed such a weapon would be in complete power. Many government officials felt that such a weapon could put an end to the war. For this reason, in 1942, the United States decided to pursue the atomic bomb. Later that year, Franklin D. Roosevelt began the Manhattan Project.The Manhattan Project was a massive engineering enterprise aimed at the supreme goal of creating an atomic bomb. At one time it employed over 129,000 workers. The United States was the only nation in the world with the capacity to work on such a high level. Though it cost approx imately $2 billion dollars, many officials who knew about the Top Secret project felt it was salutary worth it- if the Atomic Bomb proved useful. Another major expense of the United States government was the development of the B-29, a bomber plane specifically intentional for dropping Atomic Bombs. The estimated cost of this project is ... ...ioned on the ends of long-range rockets, expanding the range of the weapon. Radioactive materials essential to the construction of a Nuclear Weapon are instantly more readily available to small countries and terrorists. This poses the threat of Nuclear Warfare, which could ultimately end in the extinction of humanity.Nuclear Weapons cannot be uninvented, so therefore we must learn to live with the possible threat of Nuclear War. The first Atomic Bombs were used to end a war, however that was in the days when the only nation in possession of them was the United States. Today, if a Nuclear War broke out, the defensive nation would most likel y return fire, which could result in a global incident. It is unlikely that all of the worlds Nuclear Weapons will ever be destroyed, since the possession of them provides protection from a Nuclear Strike by another country. They are a mediating factor in times of war. Due to human nature, all we can do is hope that they are never used, and that the destruction and bloodshed brought about by the first Atomic Bomb taught us a lesson. It is even possible that this kind of power was never intended for domain to discover.

To Forgive or Not to Forgive Essay -- essays papers

To Forgive or Not to ForgiveDebt is a substantial paradox facing many countries in the world today. Some of the more economically stable countries are able to pay off their debt through strategic cypher planning. However, there are many countries that constantly struggle to solve their debt problems. In response of this issue, the IMF and the World confide have designed a framework to will special assistance for heavily indebted poor countries that pursue IMF and World Bank supported adjustment and reform programs. This framework has been called the Heavily Indebted curt Countries Initiative it is also known as the HIPC Initiative. In this paper, I will explain the advantages and disadvantages of the HIPC Initiative. My main objective will be to explain why I think it is an appropriate obligation for the IMF and World Bank to make. To do this, I will describe the initiatives of the World Bank and IMF along with the reasons for its creation, its successes and challenges, econom ic advantages and disadvantages of the debt relief program, and at long last some biblical perspective on debt forgiveness.First, it is important to look at what the HIPC Initiative is. The HIPC Initiative is a comprehensive approach to debt reduction for poor countries that requires the liaison of all creditors. Its goal is to ensure that no poor country faces a debt burden it cannot manage. Central to the HIPC Initiative is each countrys continued feat toward macroeconomic adjustment and structural and social policy reforms. In addition, the initiative focuses on ensuring additional finance for social sector programs, primarily basic wellness and education. Following a comprehensive review of the HIPC Initiative, a number of modifications were approved in September 1999 to provide faster, deeper and broader debt relief and strengthen the links between debt relief, scantiness reduction and social policies.The Initiative is not a universal remedy. Even if all the outer debts of these countries were forgiven, most would still depend on significant levels of concessional external assistance their receipts of such assistance have been much larger than their debt-service payments for many years.So, why was the HIPC Initiative created? It has been well recognized that the external debt situation for a number of low-income countries, mostly in Africa, has become ex... ...tential to do a lot of good for the economy as a whole. I believe it will economic aid not only developing nations but the developed nations as well. It also has the potential to help reduce poverty in the world as Delechat describes. Also, on a Biblical perspective, I believe it clearly states that we are to forgive the debts of our neighbors. Therefore, this is why I think the HIPC Initiative is an appropriate obligation for the IMF and World Bank to have.BibliographyWorks CitedCheru, Fantu. (January, 2001). The Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative a human rights assessment of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP). HIPC well intentioned but damage? (2001, October 15).Delechat, C. (2001). 100 Percent Debt Cancellation? A Response from the IMF and the World Bank. (2001, October 15).The Holy Bible New International Version. Exodus 22 25-27. Deuteronomy 151-11. Leviticus 25 1-43.(2000, October 12). Forgiving Their Debtors. circumvent Street Journal, p. A26.(2000, November 29). The Impact of Debt Reduction under the HIPC Initiative on External Debt Service and Social Expenditures. International Monetary Fund. (2001, October 15).

“Is technology tearing apart family life? Essay examples -- Technolog

Is technology tearing apart family life? Text messaging, neighborly networking, and online video are changing the way parents and children see the gentlemans gentlemanand each other. There are many technologies in todays smart world which are now existence established not just as a want, but as a necessity of life. Among many technologies that can refer family life, Smartphones and computers are the two most crucial technologies that can impact family life. The functions of computers and Smartphones are not just bounded to lucre surfing, gaming and assignment tools, but its commixture of other functions including affable networking systems, online mailing, and online face-to-face video chatting are now arguably the most critical functions that adopt started to impact family lives on a visible level. These technologies have two positive and negative effectuate on family life more and more families are beginning to own their own computers, as computer internet users in North America reached to about 78.3 % (Miniwatts Marketing assembly, 2011), accordingly, the effects of these technologies on family life is more easily recognized. This essay will come across both the benefits and negative effects of using such technologies on family life and ultimately see out whether the positives triumph over the negatives. There are the negative effects of using computer technologies the isolation of family members, parents bringing their work home. On the other hand, the positives include being able to associate more easily with the use of social networking systems between relatives and family members that live away from each other. Family members get more and more isolated by the use of computer technologies. For most North American families, ... ...eting Group (March 31, 2011). World Internet Usage and Population Statistics. Retrieved from http//www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm 4. Small, G. (June 19, 2009). Is Technology Fracturing Your Family. Ret rieved from http//www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-bootcamp/200906/is-technology-fracturing-your-family.5.Stevens, J.B. (June 21, 2011). Guest PostSocial Media and Divorces-Examining the Impact of Facebook and Twitter on Relationships. Retrieved from http//www.scfamilylaw.com/2011/06/articles/divorce/guest-post-social-media-and-divorces-examining-the-impact-of-facebook-and-twitter-on-relationships/6.Warren, L. (May 31, 2011). Video games being blamed for divorce as men prefer World of Warcraft to their wives. Retrieved from http//www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1392561/World-Warcraft-video-games-blamed-divorce-men-prefer-wives.html

America Needs the Affordable Care Act Essay -- America Needs Obamacar

According to Newsweek, the University Medical Center on average has about $100,000 dollars a month in unpaid doctors visits and operations and particular(prenominal) procedures this burden gets passed on to the County taxpayer (Johnson). Unpaid bills occur due to people taken to the hospital and either do not have, or have very forgetful health insurance. The current process is not fair to anyone, whether one has no health insurance or one who has paid for it. Under the Patient justification and Affordable Care feign, otherwise referred to as Obamacare, signed into law on March 23, 2010, this requires all the Statesns to purchase health insurance. The purchase of this care is purchased either each or through the government market place. The act will lower the cost of insurance on all Americans, and additionally relive pressures felt at hospitals under the circumstance one does not have health insurance. Similar acts have been passed in states like Massachusetts resulting in high success the respective(prenominal) mandate requiring Americans to purchase health insurance is justified and constitutional.The health insurance debate is not new, as there have been numerous law debates, lineage in the law passing when it comes to health care. mavin of the first people to introduce a government run health care was Theodore Roosevelt in 1912. wizard of the reasons for bringing the bill forward was due to similar laws being passed in Europe however, the bill never made it to a vote. Representative George H. Utter from Rhode Island in one case stated that he voted against the bill because he did not believe that the federal government had the resources to insure everyone (Fletcher). Also in 1949 Harry Truman proposed his Fair Deal performance including giving aid to farmers, assist s... ...tives-20140118,0,4710689.story.Johnson, Matthew. How Obamacare Will Effect County Taxpayers. Newsday. N.p., 9 Sep 2012. Web. 7 Jan 2014. .King, Paul. Study Shows Who Are The Safest Drivers in America. Associated Press. N.p., 17 Apr 2013. Web. 16 Jan 2014. .Kolesnikova, Maria. How Romneycare Helped Massachusetts. Boston Globe. N.p., 8 Dec 2012. Web. 2 Jan 2014. .Weber, Joseph. Obamacare Will Destroy America. Fox News. N.p., 31 May 2013. Web. 15 Jan 2014. . America Needs the Affordable Care Act Essay -- America Needs ObamacarAccording to Newsweek, the University Medical Center on average has about $100,000 dollars a month in unpaid doctors visits and operations and spare procedures this burden gets passed on to the County taxpayer (Johnson). Unpaid bills occur due to people taken to the hospital and either do not have, or have very woeful health insurance. The current process is not fair to anyone, whether one has no health insurance or one who has paid for it. Under the Patient shelter and Affordable Care Act, otherwise referred to as Obamacare, signed into law on March 23, 2010, this requires all Americans to purchase health insuranc e. The purchase of this care is purchased either by the piece or through the government market place. The act will lower the cost of insurance on all Americans, and additionally relive pressures felt at hospitals under the circumstance one does not have health insurance. Similar acts have been passed in states like Massachusetts resulting in high success the private mandate requiring Americans to purchase health insurance is justified and constitutional.The health insurance debate is not new, as there have been numerous law debates, lineage in the law passing when it comes to health care. One of the first people to introduce a government run health care was Theodore Roosevelt in 1912. One of the reasons for bringing the bill forward was due to similar laws being passed in Europe however, the bill never made it to a vote. Representative George H. Utter from Rhode Island once stated that he voted against the bill because he did not believe that the federal government had the resou rces to insure everyone (Fletcher). Also in 1949 Harry Truman proposed his Fair Deal Act including giving aid to farmers, assist s... ...tives-20140118,0,4710689.story.Johnson, Matthew. How Obamacare Will Effect County Taxpayers. Newsday. N.p., 9 Sep 2012. Web. 7 Jan 2014. .King, Paul. Study Shows Who Are The Safest Drivers in America. Associated Press. N.p., 17 Apr 2013. Web. 16 Jan 2014. .Kolesnikova, Maria. How Romneycare Helped Massachusetts. Boston Globe. N.p., 8 Dec 2012. Web. 2 Jan 2014. .Weber, Joseph. Obamacare Will Destroy America. Fox News. N.p., 31 May 2013. Web. 15 Jan 2014. .

Alice Walker Essay -- essays research papers

Alice WalkerAlice Walker is an African American essayist, novelist and poet. She is described as a black feminist.(Ten on Ten) Alice Walker tries to incorporate the concepts of her heritage that are absent into her essays such things as how women should be independent and find their special talent or art to trace their life better. Throughout Walkers essay entitled In Search of Our Mothers Gardens, I determined there were three factors that aided Walker produce the concepts of her heritage which are through artistic ability, her foremothers and artistic models.In Search of Our Mothers Gardens touches mainly upon family heritage and the way her heritage was created. In Atwans Ten on Ten, you will find the essay on the Mothers Gardens. On page 83 it states, For they were going nowhere immediate, and the future was not yet within their grasp. This quote signifies how mothers and grandmothers would incessantly be set serving the men in their lives for their entire lives, however, the re was a different future, a plan that they didnt see yet. This plan was for them to notice their artistic ability, whether if it was through singing, writing or making quilts. Throughout the essay, In Search of Our Mothers Gardens,Alice Walkers mentions her foremothers. Women like Jean Toomer, Phillis Wheatley and Zora Neale Hurtson, who were all either poets or writers. Mike Fike has also reco...

Alice Walker Essay -- essays research papers

Alice WalkerAlice Walker is an African American essayist, novelist and poet. She is described as a black feminist.(Ten on Ten) Alice Walker tries to incorporate the concepts of her heritage that be absent into her essays such things as how wo workforce should be independent and find their special talent or art to make their life better. Throughout Walkers essay entitled In Search of Our Mothers Gardens, I determined there were three factors that aided Walker gain the concepts of her heritage which are through aesthetical ability, her foremothers and artistic models.In Search of Our Mothers Gardens touches mainly upon family heritage and the way her heritage was created. In Atwans Ten on Ten, you will find the essay on the Mothers Gardens. On page 83 it states, For they were going nowhere immediate, and the future was not yet within their grasp. This quote signifies how mothers and grandmothers would always be set serving the men in their lives for their entire lives, however, ther e was a different future, a plan that they didnt see yet. This plan was for them to identify their artistic ability, whether if it was through singing, writing or making quilts. Throughout the essay, In Search of Our Mothers Gardens,Alice Walkers mentions her foremothers. Women like Jean Toomer, Phillis Wheatley and Zora Neale Hurtson, who were all either poets or writers. Mike Fike has also reco...

A Business Case for an ISO 14001 Essay

Abstract The ISO 14000 serial takes the international standards system to the field of environmental concerns. ISO 14001 focuses on the development and maintenance of an environmental Management System, within the ISO 14000 series. The ISO 14000 series is of relatively recent origin, having been instituted in 1991. However, it has emerged as a signifi preservet force within a short time. The ISO 14000 series is relevant for the world of business, for governments and regulators, for organizations that work not-for-profit and for entities of all types and sizes, wherever they whitethorn be.Its universal character makes it a unique and dominant system for all people who atomic outlet 18 concerned with defilement, waste and about the consumption of resources that be limited and which cannot be renewed. ISO 14000 promotes professional manage. Training people and involving them in key processes lie at the heart of the ISO 14000 system. The rigors of certification serve to develop hu man resources. It can serve to motivate people at all levels of the hierarchy, and to foster team spirit. The ISO 14000 system is not limited to altruism and to noble intentions. It is worth hard cash.ISO 14001 puts gravid pressure to bear on achieving growthivity benefits that translate to valuable cost savings. Major international corporations enjoy impressive profit growth through the ISO 14000 series. alone ISO certifications carry the benefits of independent and international recognition. ISO extension in to the field of environmental concerns through the 14000 series brings desirable pressure on companies that produce hazardous substances and which picture enormous amounts of waste. Customers everywhere have the choice to insist on ISO 14000 certifications.Companies whitethorn find themselves excluded from significant market segments if they continue to ignore or to avoid ISO 14000. slightly organizations may find themselves out of business if they do not secure ISO 140 00 certification. Apple leads a galaxy of the worlds most respected enterprises in using ISO 14001 certification as a cornerstone of competitive strategy. Lithium ion battery technology is an example of innovation that a commitment to environmental preservation can present. Solutions inspired by ISO 14001 can have welcome economic benefits, a sort out from noble achievements in terms of environmental conservation.Reduction in life force consumption is an outstanding example, since power generation can be both expensive as well as polluting. ISO 14000 calls for abiding commitment on the part of all entities that seek certification. The system consumes major portions of employee time. ISO 14000 mothers a major element of cost, though it does produce hand whatsoever returns. The ISO 14000 series follows a highly structured effectuation procedure. There is comprehensive documentation widely available that any organization can use to enter the system.Most organizations find it expedie nt to use consultants to go along them through the process. Independent auditors are inevitable. External auditors must be friendshipable, experienced and accredited. ISO 14000 has important weaknesses. Loss of proprietary information is the most serious risk. Certified companies may find that their defenses have been compromised in the tied(p)t of litigation. This arises from the documentation and management reviews that are constituent(a) to ISO 14000. ISO 14000 leaves organizations free to choose their own goals, priorities and standards.It therefore lends itself to potential abuse by organizations that may push important complaisant concerns to the background, or to prevaricate about deleterious aspects of environmental degradation. Some organizations may not be able to investment company the investments in time and money that ISO 14000 requires. The benefits may therefore evade small enterprises. ISO 14000 documentation needs can also duplicate documentation that other sy stems and some regulations require. Training and audit infrastructure is inadequate for widespread and global application of ISO 14000.Some organizations, especially in remote regions can find themselves excluded though they may wish to enlist. ISO 14000 confines itself to the environment. It does not consider issues of human wellness. There are many community concerns that ISO 14000 does not address. It is not a guarantee of ethical consummation of an organization on all fronts. Business interests may be served best if companies were to use ISO 14000 for internal review, without qualifying in for certification or even registration. It would because be an effective appliance of risk management without opening the firm to unwelcome public scrutiny.Purpose of the Study There are a number of excellent consulting services and other resources available at a cost, to help companies through the process of achieving certification. The key is the element of cost. In order to receive pro perty for consulting services or any other resources, you may have to justify your endeavor financially prior receiving any funding. Even if your company is capable of going through the process without any outside resources there are still direct and indirect costs associated with the process, prior to hiring a certification company to conduct an audit.You allow for have to buy materials, pull people in full time and part time, audit and update records. Training volition be requisite for employees and management. The purpose is to show that the costs associated with obtaining and maintaining an ISO 14000 certification as part of an Environmental Management System, can be exceeded by the benefits of doing so. The benefits are not just monetary, provided also how the company is viewed in the public eye as well, which is increasingly important in todays global economy. Importance of the oxygenatefield some(prenominal) industries are trying very hard to change their public image a s environmentally unfriendly. The oil industry with its need to seek to a greater extent sources, often in wilderness areas, chemical companies which have in the past legally dumped toxic waste, the timber industries and the automotive industry which continues to produce large gunman guzzling SUVs and trucks are all very sensitive to public perception. Perception is very powerful and a company does not want to be perceived as harmful to the environment or not environmentally friendly.The ISO 14000 certification system can be used as a tool to not just say we are concerned about the environment, but to show what you have been doing, are doing and depart be doing to improve your performance. In doing so you should be able to add to your bottom line, both direct and indirect. As more than and more of these companies and seek and obtain the ISO 14000 certification they require suppliers to do so as well. It is very likely that both public and private demand for environmental responsi bility will continue to fuel the shift towards certification as proof of doing so.In the global economy today an ISO 14000 certification could become as important, to show a companys environmental responsibility, as ISO or QS 9000 is to show a commitment to quality. It may become a prerequisite to doing business with some companies and in more industries as it has in the automotive industry. This study seeks to contribute to the on-going debate within some sections of industry about the economics of ISO 14001. We know that large corporations invest in registrations, often under duress from amicable activists.But is there money to be gained by following the system? potful there be purely business reasons for seeking ISO 14001 certification? Can smaller enterprises participate? These are some of the questions that this study seeks to answer. Scope of the Study The majority of the top 100 companies in the United States have already achieved ISO 14000 certification. The said(prenomin al) trend exists in the European Union. The research will look at what is driving the movement towards certification. It will also look at what is required to become certified and to maintain that certification.This will be done through case studies of companies that have already achieved certification, how it has affected their companies and in what ways. The main focus being that it makes genuine business sense, and the justification thereof. The study concentrates on the business and profit reasons for ISO 14000 registrations, with tertiary scans of ethical issues and applicability of not-for-profit organizations. The study includes brief descriptions of all phases of the ISO 14001 process, with outlines of the various sections of the manual that is an integral part of the process.Rationale of the Study While a lot companies have already achieved ISO 14000 certification many more have not. One of the biggest factors in trial to achieve or to get the company to attempt certifica tion, especially in small and medium size companies, is that often the appointed SME (subject matter expert) has little knowledge as to what is required. It is a task that is added to their current to do list and they are not given the proper resources or time to conduct a pure(a) study as to what needs to be done, the resources it will require and what is most important in some cases, R.O. I. (Return On Investment).This study will help to formulate what is required, where to look for information and through case studies show that a positive R. O. I. can be achieved through ISO 14000 certification and the maintenance of the certification. Overview of the Study The study will consider the attributes of ISO 14000 as an Environmental Management System. In this paper the main focus will be to define the quantitative as well as qualitative benefits for employing an EMS, in our case ISO 14000.While ISO 14000 will be the primary focus, other EMS systems will also be discusses as alternat ives and for relative comparisons. The procedures for and the costs of implementation will also be looked at as part of the study. In the process case studies will be studied and discussed through the use of meshing searches, relevant case studies and publications as well as personal experience and interviews with others in the field. This study will attempt to provide methods for justification of perusing certification.We will also try to give an overview of the process for obtaining certification from the planning stage, through implementation, certification as well as the follow up and continuous improvement required to maintain certification. The Ethical Rationale for Environmental Management Standards Concern for the environment is one of the hallmarks of social concerns during our times. Awareness has been growing since the last quarter of the twentieth century. It has snowballed in to a major force. There are signs that countries and people will become increasingly demandin g of all organizations with which to deal, in this respect.Though the first world is more influenced by concern for the environment, developing economies are also dragged in to the vortex of global opinion, as electronic media and desire for market access drive even poorer people to conform to conservation standards. Pollution, use of hazardous substances, non-degradable waste and consumption of limited natural resources are the four principal corners of environmental concerns. Pollution of air and piss are most perceptible for lay people, but the personal effects of land fills can be equally devastating. Pesticides and organic solvents lead a series of chemicals with both acute and chronic effects.Mesothelioma is an example of a consequence of exposure to a hazardous substance, the fatal implications of which can surface after decades. Organochlorine pesticides persist in nature almost indefinitely. People at large have become very concerned about such residues and threats that s urround them. Women and children are especially vulnerable. The invention of supply chains has spurred thoughts about life cycle analysis. Exhaustive labeling requirements have made people more generally aware that an innocuous finished product may involve the use of hazardous substances.Processed foods are common examples of convenience products that may contain harmful ingredients and sources of infection and contamination. This matter also leads to considerateness of packaging materials that we have traditionally taken for granted. Consumers are now aware that products made from paper can involve the destruction of forest cover, while fictile has acquired a notorious image for its persistence. This applies to tin and other metals as well. Mercury and other heavy metals in batteries and electronic products are also causes of concern.Clean water has been in acute shortage in many parts of the third world for some time now, but even developed economies have begun to touch about large-scale use of this precious resource, Ground water contamination and depletion of the ozone layer are other matters that engage much popular attention. Large corporations that render profits are prime targets for pressures to develop environmental management standards. Companies, whose operations transcend national boundaries, have to be especially careful of their environmental footprints.However, government, social service organizations and small business may all affect the environment in serious and indelible ways. Hence it is possible that environmental management programs may become increasingly universal with the passage of time. We may conclude that there is a strong ethical foundation for environmental concerns. All organizations regardless of their size, nature and location, will be subject to pressures to monitor their environmental impacts, and to find ways of reducing or even eliminating all harmful implications of their transactions.The ethical rationale has a fir m linkage with business reasons for ISO 14000 certifications, as there are societal trends that it soon become a pre-requisite for continuing to be in business. The Sustainability Imperative for Environmental Management Mature sectors of national economies, and ones that grow rapidly, are in danger of extinction if they do not address environmental concerns. Electronic waste generated by computers and emissions from heavy industries are examples of enterprises and activities that may have a natural end if they do not address the irreversible effects that they can have on the environment.Depletion of the ozone layer is the sort of contentious issue that spreads across sectors and across countries as well. Closely held companies and ones whose stocks are actively traded on markets are most vulnerable to sustainability pressures. The effects of litigation on tobacco and pharmaceutical companies does influence market capitalization significantly, while major industrial accidents can cau se companies to cease operations altogether. government activity authorities responsible for solid waste disposal, drainage and water supply, may also face bottlenecks if they do not institute timely procedures for environmental management. viands safety is an issue that can affect even a small hot-dog stand. All entities are subject to irreversible degradation if they cause continuing pollution and wasteful consumption. Viral pandemics amongst poor communities are proof that the effects of a deteriorating environment are ultimately universal. We may conclude that there are survival of the fittest compulsions for all sections of society, in terms of using environmental management systems. Damage and depletion have cumulative effects, some of which manifest themselves many years later.Changes in the macro-environment, such as ozone depletion have serious consequences for innocent communities. Stakeholders of all hues need the umbrella of environmental management systems for their o wn survival. There are indications that the only companies that will live and prosper as the 21st century unfolds will be the ones with sound environmental management systems in place. The ones that consume too much of energy and that are relatively wasteful of materials, will be forced out of business by more efficient competitors.Companies that consume vast quantities of non-renewable resources will begin to profit deep in to irreversible crevasses. Society will become increasingly impatient with waste that cannot degrade, and even more so with air and water emissions that expose human wellness. Companies may escape accountability for environmental degradation in the third world for awhile yet, but apocalypse for them is visible on the sensible horizon Recent concern for the environment in China marks a watershed, for industries and individuals in this enormous market have operated without such cares until now.The new trend in China spells a change for all corporations that se ll their goods and services there, and also for those which source inputs from that vast land. India, being a democracy and a land of education, will follow suit in due course. The days for those without environmental management programs in place are numbered, and there is advantage in jumping on to the learning curve of ISO 14001 as soon as possible. The system has a business rationale, shorn of any altruistic motives.

The Dating Game

Gwendolyn Wendy Stokes Professor Josh McCall Intermediate Composition September 21, 2011 The Dating Game Spectator or actor Finding a good man is like trying to nail jelly to a tree. Some people say that all the good ones atomic number 18 either married or gay. As a item-by-item heterosexual woman that has been in the dating scene, I must say that statement is not far from the truth. The hunt for Mr. Right is not for the feeble hearted woman. The learning curve on dating has been interesting to say the least.A few months ago, I was approached by a guy that seemed nice enough. We met at a local sports bar. We had mutual friends and he was interested, which was more than I could say for the rest of the male population. He asked if I was on Facebook. As our initial conversation progressed, I realized Facebook was his correspondence of choice. What happened to the old fashion line of Can I have your number? Yet, I trenchant to trudge forward and go with it. After a few Facebook cha ts, I agreed to let him visit me at home. He came over and flopped down on my couch.It was awkward but I was determined to find something we had in common. The conversations led to our high school days. As he told story after story, it came to me that he was nowhere near the age I had originally thought. I interrupted him just to ask, Exactly what year did you graduate? His response of 2001 made the hair on the back of my neck stand up. I had been a mother for two years when he was tossing his high school graduation cap in the air. Needless to say, I politely ended his visit with no goodnight kiss included.Another recent dating encounter was the dreaded blind date. As I drove to the agreed upon shock place all I could think was Why do I get myself into these situations? Yet, the guy I met was really nice. He was extremely attractive and had a great personality. I was pleasantly surprised at how easy the conversation flowed from subject to subject without any awkwardness that I h ad previously experienced. As the gather was breaking up, he asked if he could have my telephone number and when would be a good time to call.Of course, I gave him my number and tried not hefty eager as I said, Anytime would be fine. After he left, I overheard a conversation regarding his astonishingly recent separation from his wife. He was married. My newly lift up attitude towards dating was quickly deflated. Transitioning from the in a relationship world into the unattached world is not as transp atomic number 18nt as I one time thought. I have learned that men in my dating pool tend to be scorned by women from their previous relationships.Those scorned men are almost always cautious to the point of being noncommittal. I have never enjoyed cleaning especially a mess created by someone else. When it comes to love, I just dont want to work quite that hard. After all, love is supposed to be easy in the beginning, isnt it? Being single is hard but being with the wrong man is ev en harder. I have a tendency to believe that Mr. Right will come on when I am least expecting it and then, we can just keep the jelly in the fridge.

Online Games Is Formative Way of Learning

musical accompaniment beforehand(predicate) discipline and outgrowth through constructive perspicacity A research paper Supporting archean accomplishment and phylogenesis through plastic judgement A research paper Elizabeth Dunphy, EdD Commissi unmatchedd by the home(a) Council for program and appraisal, NCCA NCCA 2008 24 Merrion Squ ar, Dublin 2 www. ncca. ie Aistear the a topic of time electric razorhood programme model Contents Glossary 5 inception 6 subdivision 1 General downplay Purpose of the paper Assessment and curriculum The Irish mise en scene The coif condition The legislative context Ethical IssuesTowards a definition of fictile estimation Supporting study and victimisation 8 8 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 division 2 The record of archeozoic study Characteristics of proterozoic discipline The coordination compoundity of wee encyclopedism recognize theoretical constructs for sound judgement Ecological surveys Socio-cultural perspectives bo dy mould theory Childrens agency Childrens collaboration in training Intersubjectivity and collaboration Children as co-constructors of drive inledge Play as a context for formative sound judgement Emerging uprisees to appraisal Performance sagaciousness and original sound judgement sum-up 13 13 13 3 14 14 14 15 15 17 17 18 18 19 21 plane variance 3 What to assess in archean acquisition The essentials of acquisition Dispositions A range of cognitive abilities Emotional come up-being Self-concept and soci force Summary 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 discussion sectionalization 4 How to assess previous(predicate) cultivation A narrative come on to assessment of education in early on babehood Learning stories A credit-foc mappingd approach A fully-contextualised account of cultivation Methods for c wholly foring training on tykerens learning Observing and empathising Conversations with squirtren Clinical inter resumes Making sense of clawrens learningSustaining l earning and phylogenesis through documentation Portfolios Summary 25 25 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 33 3 Aistear the earlyish Childhood Curriculum cloth plane section 5 Assessment and the practitioner Professional knowledge Skills base Ethical considerations Manageability of assessment Tensions 34 34 34 35 35 36 Concluding comments 37 References 38 Table 1 Gardners understanding of gentleman instruction and assessment and Shepards guiding principles of assessment 19 4 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum manakin Glossary Glossary Agency Children ar quick in their own learning.Some ways in which they display their agency is by pickings the initiative in learning situations, by sight and becoming conglomerate in current events, or by initiating conversations with separates. Authencetic assessment Assessing small fryren on tasks that atomic government issue 18 part of their ordinary every daytime experiences in their early education and condole with settings. Co-const ruction This occurs when children and/or practitioners construct meaning and knowledge spry the world together in interaction. Collaborative learning This is learning that takes place in social contexts and victimization the resources of the environment.Formative assessment This is assessment that informs teaching and learning. It is concerned with the short stipulation collection and use of license for the direction of learning. Intersubjectivity This is the mutual understanding achieved by people in communication. Meta-cognition This refers to what children think about their own learning, view and remembering and how the act of thinking about these processes affect the ways in which children then go about intentionally learning, thinking and remembering. It is a process whereby children change state aware of their own thought processes.Pedagogy of mutuality This perspective recognises that both child and adult bring beliefs and ideas to the learning situation and that discus sion and interaction are the gist by which a shared frame of reference is established. This results in an exchange of understandings between the child and the practitioner. Pedagogical content knowledge This is a form of professional understanding which brings together content knowledge and knowledge about pedagogy. It is based on an understanding of how best to organise and present ideas and alter them in response to the diverse interests and abilities of children.Performance assessment Assessing childrens early learning and evolution through observing, recording, and evaluating childrens performance or work. Scaffolding This refers to the apply of providing guidance and countenance to children as they move from one level of competence to a nonher. It is a metaphor that is used to describe interactional jump for childrens efforts. The assistance offered to the child is sensitive to and contingent on the amount of documentation needed. Schema These are patterns of early repea table behaviours which children conduct in and which lead them through a process of co-ordination, to specify planetaryisations.Socio-cultural theories These are a family of theories that assimilate arisen from the work of Vygotsky and which take a shit in common their emphasis on the role that social and cultural factors play in childrens growing and learning. Theory of caput Children gradually acquire the understanding that other people keep hold beliefs about the world that differ from what the child him/herself believes or appears to be true. Transformation of participation From a socio-cultural perspective, children are seen as developing through a process of participating in activities of their communities, and in doing so their participation changes.They become patterned advanceively to a greater extent(prenominal) expert through trainment in cultural practice and through social interactions that guide them in pickings on new roles and responsibilities. 5 Aistear t he Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and tuition through formative assessment Introduction This research paper, Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment responds to the questions Whats the purpose of formative assessment in early childishness? What should we assess? How should we assess?The paper is one of four research papers commissioned by the NCCA to set out the theory trail behind the Framework for Early Learning1. This paper is being used to develop guidelines on assessment for comprehension in the Framework. While in that respect are a number of polar types and functions of assessment this paper focuses on formative assessment as this offers most effectiveness in terms of assessing to support learning in the day-to-day interactions between adults and children in early childhood. Section 1 of the paper, General background explores the meaning of assessment and its relativeship with teaching and learning.Though still very much an emerge area, what we know about how to support early learning and development through the formative assessment process has come upd somewhat in recent years. In umpteen ways the advances in assessment practices in early childhood education and dole out mirror those in the field of assessment chiefly. In picky, the articulation of the interrelation between teaching, learning and assessment and the complexness of the relationships between these processes and curriculum is of as much importance to those concerned with early learning and development, as it is to those concerned with later(prenominal) stages of development.The term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, everydayly implies the intention to provide a abundant picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. In drift to orient the discussion about assessment in early childhood education and care, the initial section of the paper outlines the general context in relation to the assessment of early learning and development. While a number of different lawsuits for assessing early learning and development can be identified, this paper focuses on using formative assessment to support teaching and learning.Section 2, The nature of early learning begins from the premise that in assessing early learning and development it is critical to acknowledge and take account of the nature of early learning and development. We know that in early childhood learning and development is rapid, episodic and holistic. It is likewise extremely twistd by the extent of support that is available for that learning. The adults around the child, and the extent to which they can and do support early learning and development, are crucial elements in determining the extent of learning.Because of their stage of development, childrens abilities in some areas are not yet mature. Their verbal abilities are still emerging, and so assessment of learning and development is o ften through observation of, and inference from, the childrens actions and reactions in peculiar(prenominal) situations. It is as well as essential to acknowledge and take account of the fact that in that respect are considerable cultural variations in childrens experiences. These result result in differences in the course and content of early learning and development. They whitethorn also result in considerable differences in how children learn and in how they display their learning.It is authorised to focus on the breadth of childrens early learning and development. Section 3, What to assess in early learning focuses on assessing childrens dispositions, well-being, cognitive abilities and self-concept and sociability. Assessment in early childhood is shaped by how children from birth to sextet years learn and develop. A narrative approach offers great potential for making assessment of early learning visible(a). Documentation of record of early learning and development in various ways, using a variety of media and tools, is important for both reflecting on and communicating about childrens acquirements.There appears to be general organisation that assessment of early learning and development should be informal, carried out over time, and in the context of the childs interactions with materials, objects and other people. It should also be true(p) in the sense that it should take place in real-life contexts where it is embedded in tasks that children see as significant, meaningful and worthwhile. Informal assessments, carried out as children engage in experiences they see as relevant and meaningful, are likely to produce the best assessments of early learning and development.These issues are considered in Section 4, How to assess early learning. 1 The Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 6 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through f ormative assessment Section 5, Assessment and the practitioner discusses the need for professional development for early childhood practitioners. Good assessment practice requires understanding about how children learn and develop, the process of assessment, and skills to manageably assess in ways that respect children and that are ethically sound.The concluding comments clarify and restart the fundamental messages across the paper. cite points arising from the discussion are presented in shaded boxes throughout the paper. Some of these points relate to secern messages arising from theory and research while others are aspirational. 7 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 1 General background This section of the paper explores what is meant by assessment in early childhood and discusses its relationship with teaching and learning.Informed by this, a definition of formative assessment is pres ented. The section concludes by describing the current practice and legislative context in which assessment takes place in Ireland. Purpose of the paper The purpose of this paper is to review issues link to formative assessment of early learning. The findings of the paper will be used to support the development of the assessment guidelines in the Framework for Early Learning2. The paper responds to questions cerebrate to the what, why and how of formative assessment in early childhood. Assessment and curriculumWays of assessing childrens learning and development cannot be separated from features of the curriculum (for example, the degree of formality or informality that restricts it), and from views of learners and learning which are embodied in that curriculum. Kelly (1992) identifies the interrelating of curriculum and assessment as a highly complex and sophisticated matter (p. 16). He argues that the interplay of one with the other is crucial in determining the effectiveness of either. The NCCA is developing a curriculum good example for children between the ages of birth and six years.The Framework embraces a particular view of the child, of learning and of how that learning may be celebrated and extended. In the Framework for Early Learning, learning is presented in four broad and complementary themes well-being Identity and Be spaciousing Communicating Exploring and Thinking. Some of the principles related to how children develop and learn which underpin the Framework include the following holistic learning and development active learning play and first-hand experiences relevant and meaningful experiences communication and language a well-planned and well-resourced outdoor and indoor learning environment. It will be important to identify an approach to assessment that will help practitioners identify and support childrens learning as it relates to the Frameworks principles and themes. Assessment and teaching are now largely considered to be as much inseparable processes in early childhood as they are in any other period of life (Shepard, Kagan and Wurtz, 1998 archer et al. , 2001). We now know that children learn by building new understandings on those that they already have (Wood, 1998).In order to support childrens learning then, practitioners first collect teaching about childrens well-being, identity and belonging, communication, and exploration and thinking. What children engage with, think, know, feel or can do are all of importance in the assessment process. Reflection on this randomness helps the practitioner to establish 2 As noted earlier, the Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 8 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment ow best to advance childrens learning and development. Once this is established the practitioner is then in a position to plan worthwhile, intere sting and challenging learning experiences to further progress learning. Clearly then, assessment in early childhood is not something that can be considered independent of either curriculum or learning. It is critical that the assessment of early learning recognises the unique nature of development in early childhood. It is also critical that we learn from the experiences of countries with a longer history of appraising assessment practices and processes than we have here in Ireland. working in the context of the United States, where thither has been considerable interest in finding grab assessment formats for use by early childhood practitioners, Shepard et al. (1998, pp. 8-9) devised a set of principles to guide practice and policy for the assessment of childrens learning. These represented a synthesis of understandings in respect of the most appropriate approaches to assessment in early childhood and the authors advised that they should apply to any situation in which assessment s are used to make decisions about childrens learning Assessments should bring about benefits for children. Assessments should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be reliable, valid and fair for that purpose. Assessment policies should be designed recognising that reliability and validity of assessments increases with childrens age. Assessments should be age-appropriate in both content and the method of data collection. Assessments should be linguistically appropriate, recognising that to some extent all assessments are measures of language. Parents should be a valued source of assessment knowledge, as well as an audience for assessment results. The Irish context The practice context Assessment in the early years of a childs life can be viewed from a number of perspectives. David (2003) identifies three perspectives the day-to-day informal assessments made by the adults with whom the child comes in contact. In most cases these are early years practitioners who may or may not document such(prenominal) assessments. the physical assessments by paediatricians, national health nurses and family doctors.These aim to identify any physical problems that may impede childrens progression and seek to alleviate them as much as possible. symptomatic assessments that can have a range of functions, including identifying children with special educational needs, and helping practitioners to support their learning more effectively. No single type of assessment can serve all of the purposes identified in the perspectives outlined above. Each perspective has a role to play, especially in the case of children with special needs where diagnostic assessments are of paramount importance.Babies, toddlers and preteen children may experience various types of assessments in early childhood. Some may occur frequently, others occasionally. Multi-agency and multi-disciplinary communication is a critical means by which information related to the childs development and le arning can be shared for the benefit of the child. It is imperative that practitioners in early childhood settings have access to any information that is of use in making sure learning opportunities in the setting are appropriate for each item-by-item child.The practice of practitioners building on assessments carried out by other professionals such as therapists can be facilitated by significant levels of inter- and/or multidisciplinary teamwork. 9 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Where children spend some or all of their day in out-of-home settings the practitioners with whom they are in contact engage in ongoing assessment for supporting learning and development.Traditionally, observation is the primary method used in assessing childrens learning and development in the range of early education settings in Ireland. For instance, close observations of childrens play in a range of child care red evelopments in Ireland provide the basis for learning and teaching stories (Brennan, 2004). Many practitioners use checklists to record aspects of their observations. These are often used to record observations in relation to the assessment of childrens skills and understandings, particularly in the area of identifying children with special educational needs and in supporting their learning and development.In relation to their use of assessment practices to support childrens learning in curriculum areas, only about half of infant teachers who participated in Phase 1 of the Primary Curriculum Review (NCCA, 2005) account that they used observation and about three-quarters reported using documentation. Infant teachers in primary taketimes also use a range of developmental and diagnostic assessments, for example, in the area of early literacy, to assess specific aspects of childrens development and learning. (See Section 4 for a more extensive discussion on observation as an assessme nt method. )Increasingly there is an awareness that children live different childhoods their social, cultural, linguistic and ecological experiences and opportunities differ and all of this influences assessment. Practitioners who are in daily contact with children are in a good position to familiarise themselves with these diverse aspects of childrens lives and of their possibilities for early learning and development. Consequently, on a day-to-day basis, the practitioners own assessments are the ones that have the most potential in terms of planning for childrens learning and of making judgements regarding childrens progress.Using assessment for this purpose is the central focus of this paper. Key point A range of assessments are appropriate in assessing childrens learning. The focus of the assessment depends on its purpose. The central focus of this paper is on formative assessment where practitioners own assessments are used to support and plan for childrens learning. The legisl ative context There is a long history of informal assessment of childrens learning in Ireland. However, for various reasons early childhood practitioners now find it necessary to document learning in ways that were not general practice previously.Both legislative requirements and practitioners own desires to better understand early learning and how best to extend it, are to the fore in encouraging the documentation of information related to childrens early learning and development. In relation to untried children attending primary schools, The Education bout (Department of Education and Science, 1998) requires principals and teachers to regularly evaluate students and sporadically report the results of the evaluation to the students and their parents. The implications of this requirement for teachers and schools include developing assessment procedures which provide an accurate account of childrens progress and achievement creating and maintaining records of childrens progress and achievement while they are attending the school providing parents with assessment reports which contain accurate and clearly accessible information about their childrens progress and achievement (NCCA, 2007a, p. 95). The fair to middling Status Act (The Equality Authority, 2000) has implications for the assessment policy in early education settings.In particular, it requires settings to be aware of the effects of context, culture and language in assessing childrens learning and development. 10 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment The Education for Persons with special(a) Educational Needs Act (EPSEN) (Department of Health and Children, 2004) requires that where a child has or may have special educational needs an assessment of those needs should be carried out. With children not attending formal schooling this is the responsibility of the relevant health board.Where the child is a student then the Act requires schools to identify when a child is not benefiting from the education programme on offer and to investigate the reasons behind this. The school, or in the case of a child not at school the relevant health board, is mandated to ensure that an singular education plan (IEP) for an appropriate education for the child is drawn up in consultation with the childs parents. The Act outlines the statutory requirements for educational planning for children with special educational needs (SEN).It requires that a multi-disciplinary assessment be carried out in situations where it is considered that the child may have special educational needs. An IEP essential then be prepared for each child identified as having such needs. Discussion and agreement regarding the abilities, skills and talents as well as the nature and degree of the childs special educational needs, together with an analysis of how these needs affect the childs learning and development is required. The plan must include these and must also specify goals for learning and development for the child over a period not exceeding ne year. It must also specify the supports that need to be put in place to change the child to participate in and benefit from education. The Disability Act (Department of Health and Children, 2005) enables provision for the assessment of health and education needs for persons with disabilities, arising from their situation. The Act provides for access for people with disabilities to health and education services. In relation to educational needs, discontinue 2 Section 8 (9) states that where an assessment is applied for it must be carried out by or at the request of an assessment officer who then identifies the need for the provision of an educational service to the child, he or she shall, in case the child is enrolled in a school, refer the matter to the principal of that schoolin any other case, refer the matter to the council for the purposes of an assessment. The Child Care (Pre-School Services) (No 2) Regulations (Department of Health and Children, 2006) set out the regulations and requirements pertaining to all aspects of the operation of pre-school settings. Regulation 5 explicitly requires thatA person carrying on a pre-school service shall ensure that each childs learning, development and well-being is facilitated within the daily life of the service through the provision of the appropriate opportunities, experiences, activities, interaction, materials and equipment, having regard to the age and state of development of the child and the childs cultural context. To fulfil this requirement it is necessary for practitioners to engage in making important judgements about childrens learning and development and how best to extend and en bounteous it. By implication this involves the practitioner in assessing learning and development.Indeed, the explanatory guide directs practitioners to be pro-active in ensuring that appropriate action is tak en to address each childs unmarried needs with his/her parents and following consultation, where appropriate, with other relevant services (p. 39). While there are other pieces of legislation which impact on aspects of assessment such as the transfer of assessment information between settings, the focus of this paper is on the actual process of using assessment to support early learning and development. How best to comply with the above demands in ways that are respectful to hildren capture the complexness of early learning and are helpful in planning future learning experiences has now become a key issue for consideration for early childhood practitioners. Key point Assessment takes place within a particular legislative framework in Ireland. Ethical Issues The nature of the mightiness relations between babies, toddlers and young children and the practitioners with whom they come into contact needs to be acknowledged in the assessment situation. The male monarch of the adult and the relative dependency of children make it imperative that ethical issues are given serious consideration by practitioners.Some of these issues are discussed later in Section 5. 11 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Towards a definition of formative assessment Bowman, Donovan and Burns (2001) suggest that the term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to provide a rich picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. Such a picture focuses on the individuals learning, is built up over time and provides evidence of learning in a number of different contexts.In relation to its importance, they argue that Assessment has an important role to play in revealing a childs prior knowledge, development of concepts and ways of interacting with and understanding the world so that teachers can choose a pedagogical approach and curricular materia ls that will support the childs further learning and development. (p. 259) Pelligrini (1998) describes assessment in early childhood as being about the collection of information about children. This is generally understood to encompass a number of other processes besides collecting. For example, Lally nd Hurst (1992) describe how assessment also involves practitioners in documenting, analysing and reflecting on the information collected, and using this to plan and support further learning. This definition is very convertible to that used in Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum Guidelines for Schools (NCCA, 2007a). While similar methods may be utile in both early childhood settings and in primary school settings, in early childhood assessment particular account needs to be taken of the characteristics of babies, toddlers and young children and to the unique ways in which these children learn.Early childhood assessment focuses specifically on finding out what children are int erested in, understand, think, feel, and are able to do. It seeks to document this information in order to understand childrens thinking and learning styles, to chart childrens progress and to support further learning. It is developmental in that it focuses on processes rather than on content or product. Key point Assessment of early learning provides a rich picture of childrens learning by collecting and documenting information. Through reflecting on and using this information, childrens future learning is supported and enhanced.Supporting learning and development Assessment in early childhood has been identified as having a number of functions ipsative, diagnostic, summative, evaluative and informative (Wood and Attfield, 2005). Assessment in early childhood has enormous potential to support learning and development. A recent large-scale longitudinal study of early learning settings in England confirmed the importance of assessment in see childrens needs and in supporting their cognitive progress (Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden and Bell, 2002).The ultimate purpose of assessment in early childhood is to make learning more interesting, enjoyable and successful for children. Drummond (1993) suggests that assessment must work for children We can use our assessments to shape and enrich our curriculum, our interactions, our provision as a undivided we can use our assessments as a way of identifying what children will be able to learn next, so that we can support and extend that learning. Assessment is part of our daily practice in striving for quality. (p. 13) Key pointAssessment in early childhood promotes the extension and enrichment of childrens early learning and development. The following section looks at the nature of early learning and the implications for assessing early learning. 12 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 2 The nature of early learning Thi s section of the paper discusses the characteristics of early learning and identifies some key theoretical constructs that guide the teaching, learning and assessment processes during early childhood.Theoretical considerations have been influential in determine new and emerging approaches to assessment and the most salient of these are discussed in relation to their implications for the assessment of early learning and development. Characteristics of early learning During the early childhood period childrens learning across the various dimensions of development (for example, physical, motor, linguistic, emotional) is greater than at any other period, only is also highly variable across the dimensions.It also occurs very rapidly, is episodic in nature and is very susceptible to environmental conditions (Shepard et al. , 1998). These factors contribute to making the assessment of early learning and development very challenging. The complexity of early learning We have a great deal o f evidence that early learning and development is both extensive and complex (e. g. Drummond, 1993 Bowman et al. , 2001 Carr, 2002). The research paper, Childrens early learning and development (French, 2007) provides information on many facets of early learning and development.Early childhood educators have consistently sought to convey the extent of this complexity and over the years they have provided evidence of exactly how much learning children can demonstrate, provided that it is approached in appropriate ways. For instance, Donaldson (1983) clearly demonstrates how children display different levels of proficiency/learning in different contexts. In her seminal work, Childrens Minds, she reviewed research that illustrated the dramatic effect of the inclusion or omission of a single adjective in questioning children on so-called logical tasks.She argues (p. 59) that the young child first makes sense of situations (and mayhap especially those involving human intentions) and the n uses this kind of understanding to help him make sense of what is said to him. Looking not at what children say but at what they do, the work of Athey (1990) and that of Nutbrown (1999) clearly demonstrates how, as children pursue certain schema for considerable periods of time, these can be identified and supported by practitioners. Early learning is seen, for instance in Atheys work, to have its own recognisable and valid characteristics.Nutbrown (1999) draws out the implication of that work for the assessment of childrens pathways and patterns of development and interest. This work along with that of Drummond (1993) exemplifies vividly how much of childrens learning there is to see if practitioners are open to seeing it by looking beyond what children can tell us and instead observing what they actually can do. Play provides an important vehicle and context for this work. Key point During the early childhood period, childrens learning is highly complex and is made visible throu gh assessing carefully and thoughtfully.Key theoretical constructs for assessment Dahlberg, Moss and Pence (1999) observe that in recent years, especially in Western Europe, there has been a process of rethinking childhood that has led to new constructions of the child. They locate this process in a number of interrelated developments with respect to learning theories philosophy psychology sociology and a concurrent questioning of previous understandings in these fields. From this post-modern perspective, the young child is seen, from the start of life, as a construction of his or her own world.This is very similar to the perspective adopted by Malaguzzi (1993), the founder of the world-renowned Reggio Emilia pre-schools in Italy. Dahlberg et al. (1999) describe how in Reggio Emilia pre-schools, the young child is understood as a unique, complex individual who is rich in the sense that he or she is equipped from the start to engage fully and actively in their world. A wider discussi on of these perspectives follows. 13 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentEcological perspectives Ecological and socio-cultural theories of learning have largely dominated explanations of development and learning in early childhood in recent years. For instance, ecological (Bronfenbrenner 1979) and bioecological (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998) models of human development have been influential in efforts to understand learning and development and associated processes such as assessment. These models emphasise the role in human development of both the environment and of processes.The research paper, Perspectives on the relationship between education and care (Hayes, 2007) in turn suck ups both the importance of care and education in facilitating childrens overall development. From this perspective, human development is seen as taking place as a result of progressively more complex reciprocal interacti ons (p. 996) between the young child and the people, objects and symbols in the environment. To be effective the interactions must occur on a fairly regular basis over extended periods of time (p. 996).These enduring forms of interaction (proximal processes) are seen as key to learning and development and we must study these interactions over time and alongside the observation of behaviour in natural settings. From an ecologicaltheory perspective, Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes how the learner can participate in increasingly more complex learning situations and in doing so take increasingly greater responsibility in the learning situation. The perspective also emphasises the agency or active nature of children in their interactions with adults, objects and symbols.The model can be used to draw attention to the interpersonal and situational aspects of assessment, for example the importance of the personal characteristics of the child and the adult in the assessment context, the impo rtance of reciprocal interactions between child and adult and the importance of assessing childrens level of engagement with the objects and symbols provided in the immediate environment. Thus the ecological approach emphasises assessment of children engaged in real tasks in natural settings.This perspective sits very well with the socio-cultural perspective that we look at next. Socio-cultural perspectives In the past dickens decades socio-cultural perspectives, that is perspectives that highlight the social and cultural nature of learning, are increasingly used to explain the ways that learning and development occur in early childhood (Anning, Cullen and Fleer, 2004). Socio-cultural theories of learning suggest that the process of learning is as much a social construction as it is an individual one. Rogoff (1998, p. 91) describes development as transformation of participation. Transformation occurs at a number of levels for instance, the learner changes at the level of their invo lvement, in the role they play in the learning situation, in the ability they demonstrate in moving flexibly from one learning context to another, and in the amount of responsibility taken in the situation. employment theory also concentrates on the social aspects of learning. Activity theory Activity theory, which is a development of aspects of Vygotskys work (See for example, Engerstrom et al. 1999), is also being highlighted as a theoretical framework that may be useful in explaining the complexity of learningrelated issues in early childhood. Fleer, Anning and Cullen (2004) explain how activity theory, in common with Rogoffs discussion of socio-cultural theory, focuses on the study of the complexity of human behaviour in social groups and in specific contexts. The theory is premised on the notion that the contextual features of a task contribute to performance on that task (p. 178).Furthermore, children use tools such as language, a particular action or resource to mediate kn owledge in interactions with others. But the cultural features of the context in which they use these tools influences the way activities are performed and understood. Key point If socio-cultural theory informs our understanding of how children learn, it also by implication informs our understanding of assessment. 14 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentWhat all of these perspectives hold in common is their emphasis on the socially constructed nature of learning and of assessment. There are a number of other important constructs that also unite them to greater or lesser degrees. These include childrens agency, the importance of collaboration, and the co-construction of meaning and knowledge. These constructs are particularly helpful when thinking about the quality of the interactions between practitioners and young learners. Quality interactions are increasingly recognise as central to pedagogy ( fore boding(a) and Wiliam 1998a Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002).The next sub-section discusses these ideas in some detail, and in doing so, draws out the implications for assessment practices in early childhood. Childrens agency Bruner (1999a) argues that advances in the study of human development provide us with a profile of the child as an active, intentional being with knowledge as man-made rather than simply there with ways to negotiate with others in the construction of knowledge. (See French (2007) for more detailed information. ) A crucial aspect of identity and self-esteem is that the child sees him/her self as an agent in control of his/her own actions.Some ways in which children display their agency is by taking the initiative in learning situations, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with others. Agency is about taking more control of your own mental activity (Bruner, 1996, p. 87). Bruner argues that the agentive mind is not on ly active in nature but it seeks out dialogue and discourse with other active minds (p. 93). Bruner (1999a) identifies efforts to recognise childrens perspectives in the processes of learning as highly significant and he uses the term pedagogy of mutuality (p. 3) to describe the pedagogy that arises from such endeavours. It is premised on the belief that children are able to reason to make sense (both alone and in discourse with others) to reflect and to hold theories about self and about the world. The practitioner, according to Bruner (p. 12) is concerned with understanding what the child thinks and how he/she arrives at what he/she believes. He identifies four key research constructs which have enriched this perspective on teaching and learning (and by implication assessment) Intersubjectivity how the child develops the ability to read other minds Theory of mind the childs grasp of anothers intentional state Meta-cognition what the child thinks about learning, remembering th inking Collaborative learning how children, through talk and discussion, explain and revise their thinking. These theoretical ideas are important also in the analysis of assessment as it relates to early learning and development. Childrens collaboration in learning is also important and this is considered below. Key pointThe active role which children themselves play in their interactions with others needs to be recognised and taken into account in any assessment of learning. Childrens collaboration in learning Zone of proximal development Vygotskys theory of learning (1978 1986) has been highly influential in helping to explain the processes of learning in early childhood. In particular, his notion of the partition of proximal development has provided the foundation and potential for some of the most important recent initiatives in the assessment of individual childrens learning (Lunt, 2000).Berk and Winsler (1995) describe Vygotskys zone of proximal development (ZPD) as a prop ulsive zone of sensitivity in which learning and cognitive development occur. Tasks that children cannot do individually but they can do with help from others entreat mental functioning that are currently in the process of developing, rather than those that have already matured (p. 26). It appears that Vygotsky originally introduced the ZPD in the context of arguing against tidings testing which he felt was seeking to assess something static and did not reflect the high-octane and ever-changing 5 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment nature of human cognition. Adult-child collaboration within the ZPD is critical for effective teaching and learning interactions because it is within such interactions that the practitioner identifies how the child may be assisted in learning and what the child is capable of doing with appropriate support. The practitioner also has the probability to assess the impact of such support on the childs progress.This approach to assessment effectively merges the teaching and assessment processes. It is commonly referred to as dynamic assessment. When Feuerstein (1979) first proposed this form of assessment he was envisioning, in essence, a formulate problem-solving situation during which the practitioner gauges the nature and extent of assistance required by the child in order to solve the problem. Childrens responsiveness to appropriate instructional interactions is a key factor in dynamic assessment situations and it is now considered to be an important predictor of learning potential (Berk and Winsler, 1995).Lidz (1991) emphasises that The focus of dynamic assessment is on the assessors ability to discover the means of facilitating the learning of the child, not on the childs demonstration of ability to the assessor (as cited in Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 139). Dynamic assessment is considered by Berk and Winsler (ibid. ) as especially useful for m aking visible the learning potential of those children whose early experiences do not include experiences that prepare them for learning in group/institutional settings. (For a comprehensive discussion of dynamic assessment and emerging approaches to such assessment, see Lunt, 2000).The concept of scaffolding is often associated with ZPD and it is this which we turn our attention to next. Key point Practitioners interactions with children often bear both teaching and assessment. It is critical that the practitioner is capable of engaging certain interactive skills in such situations since these will be necessary to ensure best learning and development. Scaffolding Effective scaffolding (Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976), where the adult guides the childs learning in the ZPD, is an important feature of the engagement of the child in joint problem solving.Here, the child interacts with the practitioner while the two are jointly trying to reach a goal and this results in the establishment of intersubjectivity (Newson and Newson, 1975). Intersubjectivity refers to the process whereby two participants achieve a shared understanding whilst undertaking a task that they approach from different perspectives. The parties co-construct meanings in activities that involve higherorder thinking (Vygotsky, 1978). Rogoff (1998) emphasises the ongoing mutual process of understanding, which is inherent in joint problemsolving interactions.She also draws attention to the institutional and cultural aspects of joint problemsolving activities. She distinguishes between her socio-cultural approach to studying experts support of novices learning and other approaches which focus on particular techniques such as scaffolding. Rogoff distinguishes between the concepts of scaffolding and of working in the zone of proximal development. She describes scaffolding as a specific technique centre on what experts provide for novices it focuses on the tutors efforts as they relate contingently to th e novices successes and failures (p. 699).However, working in the zone of proximal development is, in her view, wider than scaffolding. It focuses on the processes of communication that builds a continually evolving mutual perspective. It is a way of describing an activity in which someone with greater expertness assists someone else to participate in socio-cultural activities in a way that exceeds what they could do otherwise (p. 699). Mutual contribution is an essential consideration so interactions and communicative and collaborative processes all form part of the picture, rather than just the childs successes or errors as in scaffolding.Rogoff argues that The concept of scaffolding does not refer to the institutional and cultural context in which it occurs, whereas the concept of zone of proximal development requires attention to processes of communication and the relation of the interaction at hand to institutional, cultural and diachronic processes. (p. 700) 16 Aistear the E arly Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Key point Supporting childrens learning is an important part of assessment. For the practitioner this is often far more complex than simply applying a technique such as scaffolding.Learners make an equally important contribution. Intersubjectivity and collaboration are important in scaffolding childrens learning and we look at these two concepts below. Intersubjectivity and collaboration Rogoff (1990 1998) has illustrated how children make an important contribution in collaborating in the process of establishing joint understanding. Children, including infants in the first year of life, can sometimes be observed to be deliberately taking the lead in collaborative activities by seeking information or by directing activities.Rogoffs analysis, consistent with Vygotsky, suggests that the intersubjectivity as achieved by adults and babies is different from that achieved by adults an d children who can use linguistic (verbal and gestural) communication to achieve mutual understandings. This then has implications for the assessment process across the age range birth to six years. Working in the zone of proximal development with a toddler will include the adult engaging in the demonstration of objects, collaborative activity with objects and the focusing of the childs attention.Rogoff (1998) points out that the child, for example in seeking to help the adult in everyday chores, very often initiates such activity. Older toddlers and young children will often seek to assert their independence in doing a particular task themselves but Rogoffs analysis of the research suggests that they also will actively seek assistance when they are stuck. Recently a question has arisen about the capacity of early years settings to support the kinds of relationships and shared experiences that enable children to engage in the types of social participation that promote optimum learni ng (Parker-Rees, 2007).The research indicates that the nature and scope of babies, toddlers and childrens interactions with parents, the playful quality of these interactions and the extent to which relationships can influence reciprocal imitative behaviour (an important process of learning especially in the first year) must all be fully appreciated by practitioners and be seen as desirable conditions for learning in the setting. Key point The concept of collaboration is key when considering assessment from a socio-cultural perspective.In collaborating, the child and the practitioner are involved in each others thinking processes through shared efforts. In order to assess certain aspects of learning by babies, toddlers and young children, it is essential for adults to collaborate with the children in order to understand their learning. The co-construction of knowledge is supported by intersubjectivity and collaboration and it is to this that we next draw our attention. Children as c o-constructors of knowledgeIn recent times the term co-construction has featured prominently in influential early childhood publications, although it was implicit in the last century in the work of Dewey (1933) who emphasised the ways in which children construct their learning by actively engaging in, and shaping, their experiences and environments. For instance, Jordan (2004) discusses the term scaffolding and compares it with coconstruction. The specific pattern of interaction that characterised early accounts of scaffolding, according to Jordan (ibid. and Rogoff (1998), generally maintained the power and control with the adult. They argue that the term co-construction emphasises the child as a powerful player in his/her own learning. An example of how this process of co-construction works in practice is illustrated in the discussions of the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education (Edwards, Gandini and Forman, 1998). Co-construction refers to adults and children making meaning and knowledge together (MacNaughton and Williams, 2004).Co-construction recognises the childs expertise and in order to understand this, the practitioner needs to interact with the child and become aware of the childs thoughts and thereby to establish intersubjectivity. 17 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Recent research (Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002) also highlighted the process of co-construction and found it to be a key factor in terms of promoting childrens learning.Essentially a co-construction perspective emphasises understanding and meaning on the part of both child and adult, rather than the acquisition of facts by the child. Jordan (2004) concludes that the two concepts, scaffolding and co-construction have different applicability depending on whether the goal of the practitioner is the exploration of thinking or the achievement of pre-specified learning goals. Key point Co-con struction of meaning and knowledge is central to teaching, learning and assessment and it occurs when both child and practitioner engage together in achieving mutual understanding.Play as a context for formative assessment As this paper demonstrates, childrens learning is complex and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. In early childhood, this complexity is abundantly evident as children engage in play. The importance of play to young childrens learning and development is a key principle for early childhood practitioners (Wood, 2004). Assessing childrens understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early years settings. In assessing the childs learning through play the adult can use a range of approaches and methods.Practitioners make assessments by focusing on childrens play interests, their levels of engagement and participation. They make assessments while skilfully engaging with children in play. Skilful engag ement includes intervention in play as and when appropriate. Such interventions may serve to initiate or sustain interactions, thereby leading to shared talking and thinking. They may also involve scaffolding children in order to enable them to reach their potential at a particular time. (See the research paper, Play as a context for early learning and development (Kernan, 2007) for detailed information on play. Childrens learning is a complex matter and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. The paper now looks at emerging approaches to assessment, all of which take account of play as a vehicle for learning and development. Key point Assessing childrens understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early years settings. Emerging approaches to assessment The rationale for using assessment to enrich and extend childrens learning can be located in recent developments in societys understandings of learning in the early y ears.For instance, in recent decades there have been very big changes in our understandings of human nature and of learning. Gardner (1999, p. 91) reviews what he describes as several lines of evidence from the cognitive, neural, and developmental sciences which point to a far more capacious view of the human mind and of human learning than that which informed earlier conceptions. He presents a picture of assessment that builds on the newly emerging picture of human development (see Table 1). Gardners principles complement the earlier principles presented by Shepard et al. 1998). (See pages 16-17. ) 18 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Table 1 Gardners understanding of human development and assessment and Shepards guiding principles of assessment Features of human development Features of assessment In understanding human development, there is Assessment should be simple, natural and occurring on a reliable schedule evidence for the existence of multiple faculties or intelligences have ecological validity (be done in situations hat are real) recognition of vast individual differences the desirability of assessing learning in context utilise instruments that are intelligence-fair and not dependent on language or logical faculties locating competence and skill outside the head of the individual. use multiple measures be sensitive to individual differences, developmental levels and forms of expertise use materials which are intrinsically interesting and motivating yield information to be used for the learners benefit. a necessity for a developmental perspective n emergence of a symbol-system perspective Performance and authentic assessment incorporate some of Gardners ideas and a discussion of these follows below. Performance assessment and authentic assessment Emerging approaches to assessment take account of developments in theories about learning and about human d evelopment. Performance assessment is currently seen as an approach that is particularly appropriate for assessing many aspects of early learning and development (see Bowman et al. , 2001). Meisels (1999) describes performance assessment as assessments that are ounded on the notion that learning and development can only be assessed over time and in interactions with materials, objects and other people. In this approach to assessment, the expectation is that tasks must be practical, realistic and challenging for children (Torrance, 2001). Performance assessment implies observation of children as they undertake a number of routine tasks in early learning settings. According to Meisels (1999, p. 58) these should meet a number of criteria tasks should bring together various skills that children display and demonstrate during the course of interactions children should be assisted to perform to the very best of their ability tasks should be guided by developmental standards tasks shou ld engage children in reflection about their work and in articulating their ideas about their learning. Authentic assessment is a type of performance assessment. It is described as compatible with the prevailing philosophy that emphasises whole child development (Puckett and Black 2000, p. 6). This philosophy explains development across a range of domains (for example social, moral, emotional, language and cognitive).It also recognises the diversity of early learning and the role of environmental factors in shaping that learning. From an authentic assessment perspective, curriculum and assessment are interwoven and emphasise relevant and meaningful experiences. Assessment focuses on what children do, and on how they do it in the context of meaningful tasks. Authentic assessment has a number of identifiable features (Puckett and Black, 2000, p. 7), including the following 19 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative a ssessment an emphasis on emerging development a focus on the young childs individual strengths and weaknesses is based on principles of child growth and development emanates from logical, meaningful, relevant and applicable curricula is performance based recognises different intelligence and learning styles is reflective and analytic is ongoing and occurs in many contexts is collaborative with learners, parents and others involved in childrens learning is interwoven with teaching. Key point Authentic assessment is compatible with a whole child perspective on learning and development. 20 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum FrameworkSupporting early learning and development through formative assessment Summary Where the purpose of assessment is to promote further learning, assessment becomes a particular type of teaching strategy. (See Marshall and Drummond, 2006). Assessment from a socio-cultural perspective takes account of the key learning processes as determined by so cio-cultural theory. In particular, collaboration and the importance in that process of the establishment of mutual understanding (intersubjectivity) need to be emphasised, as do ideas about childrens agency and those related to the co-construction of knowledge and understanding.An understanding of the different processes that contribute to childrens learning, and the types of interactions that promote it are key to understanding how such learning can best be assessed. The recognition of these processes at work is also central in conceptualising assessment approaches that take account of and display the key role of children themselves in the assessment process. Authentic assessment reflects new understandings about learning and about human development, and recognises the holistic, contextualised and dynamic nature of learning in early childhood.Having discussed the interconnection between how children learn and approaches to assessment, the next section looks at what to assess in ch ildrens early learning and development. 21 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 3 What to assess in early learning This section of the paper identifies aspects of learning that are of concern in assessing childrens early learning and development. The challenges of assessing a wide range of learning and development in a balanced way are discussed.The essentials of learning Skills and knowledge are important in respect of early learning. However, increasingly there are calls for a wider view of what it is that children are learning in the years from birth to six, and for explicitness about other areas of childrens development that are now recognised as critical for long term success. For instance, Bertram and Pascal (2002) identify social competence, emotional well-being and dispositions to learn as core constituent elements of the effective learner.In relation to each of these areas they identi fy elements that characterise the effective learner. Indicators related to disposition include independence, creativity, self-motivation and resilience. Those related to emotional literacy include empowerment, connectedness, and positive self-esteem. Those related to social competence inco